Papyrus by Richard Parkinson and Stephen Quirke Read Online

past Elaine A. Evans, Curator, Adjunct Assistant Professor, McClung Museum

Effigy one. Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus Fifty.) Grove in Sicily. Courtesy of Westward. V. Davies.

My lecture this afternoon will be a cursory introduction to the vital and indispensable flowering fresh-water reed of aboriginal Arab republic of egypt chosen by its scientific proper nameCyperus papyrusFifty (Figure ane).

It made an extraordinary and historical impact on the Western world. But papyrus paper was non its only use. There were many things made from this most adjustable and extraordinary plant, which grew in groovy affluence along the banks and in the marshes watered by the cracking Nile River. Every bit the German Egyptologist Georg Ebers, known for a famous Ebers Papyrus named afterwards him wrote, "It was of the greatest consequence for Egyptian industrial arts that one of the nearly useful plants the world has ever known grew in every marsh. The papyrus reed was used as a universal textile by the Egyptians, like the bamboo or the coco-nut palm by other nations; it was the more useful as it formed a substitute for woods, which was never plentiful."¹

Figure ii. Gathering of Papyrus. From the Tomb of Piumra, Dynasty XVIII, Thebes

Today, we volition explore the botanical characteristics of papyrus and explain its numerous uses in the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians. Papyrus is quite a fun plant and it will amaze you in how many ways information technology pervaded the lives of the ancients. Papyrus played an important role in keeping their land vigorous and humming with energetic activity. The pharaohs of Egypt were blessed.

Papyrus is one of the nearly ancient plants known to humankind. Egypt is believed to exist its place of origin. The tall, willowy plant predates the Dynastic Flow. Thank you to the high level of their cultural development, the ancient Egyptians, so attuned to their natural environment, were able to uncover all of its claim and potentialities for practical useage. Throughout the dynastic periods, papyrus brought nothing but satisfaction and benefits to Pharaoh and his people.

We can visualize more clearly the activity the plant created from tomb wall paintings, which depict ancient papyrus collection and product (Figure 2.). Workers pulled the stalks upwards from the marshes, tied the stalks in bundles and carried them to the workshops for processing.

Travellers and the Illusive Plant

In early times, visitors from other ancient cultures came to Egypt and were impressed by the luxuriantCyperus papyrus found growing and then abundantly everywhere. According to the aboriginal Greek historian Herodotus, circa 450 BC, papyrus was "plucked from the marshes, the meridian cutting off and turned to other ends, and the lower office…eaten or sold."². We have an early on statement from the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (Advertizing 23-29), who wrote about the plant growing in the marshes and sluggish waters of the Nile to a height of fifteen anxiety in Book Thirteen, 71, of his encyclopedicNatural History.

Effigy three. Napoleon's Troops at the Pyramids in 1798. From La Description de l'Égypte.

The stately, green plant, calleddjet ortjufi by the ancient Egyptians, played such an important utilitarian office in their daily life, only today, sadly, it has almost disappeared from Egypt. When exactly this happened is not known. Merely it is believed past some the original plant died out forth the Nile River before the time Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Egypt with his troops in 1798 (Figure three.). The plant is non recorded in Napoleon's famous French publication of the early 19th century entitledLaClarification de l'Égypte, which included a department devoted to the flora and fauna of Egypt.

This circumstance led some scholars to believe the plant had disappeared. Controversy began between botanists. Questions were asked, but answers were few in coming.

Early Arab writers such as Ibn Gulgul in AD982 had mentioned the plant growing tall in the Nile marshes. Much later, the French naturalist Pierre Belon in 1546-49, noted papyrus in Egypt and later the Italian medico and botanist Prosper Alpinus in 1580. Still, the famous Swedish explorer and botanist Fredrik Hasselquist did not see the establish in his travels of 1749-50. Just in his pioneering book of 1790,Select Specimens of Natural History nerveless in Travels to observe the Source of the Nile in Arab republic of egypt, Arabia, Abyssinia, and Nubia, the Scottish traveller James Bruce (1730-1794), wrote about the papyrus growing in Egypt and expressed his thoughts near where information technology came from: "The papyrus seem to me to accept early on come up down from Ethiopia, and to have been used in Upper Egypt…."³

Effigy 4 Engraving of Papyrus, circa 1790. From J. Bruce, Select Specimens of Natural History. London 1790.

Bruce does not describe the establish in particular, simply the engraving (Figure 4) appears as an illustration in his book and it compares favorably with the plant found several years later growing in Arab republic of egypt. In 1820-1821, Businesswoman Heinrich C. Yard. Minutoli (1772-1846), a Prussion army officer, found various places of growth in the Nile Delta at Damietta, one hundred and twenty-five miles north-north-e of Cairo on the East Bank of the Nile River, and also on the banks of the one time six hundred-sixty square mile Lake Manzala. Nevertheless, in 1897, the distinguished French botanist Chiliad. Delchevalerie, an author of several books on the plants of Egypt, referred in his writings to the consummate extinction of papyrus in Egypt. He said:: "Nosotros were obliged to A. Riviere, Chief gardener of Grand duchy of luxembourg, at Paris, that we gave 12 plants which were brought to Egypt in 1872 and plants to Choubra [near Cairo] and in other gardens at Cairo."⁴

Some scholars believe the specie growing in Arab republic of egypt, today, is probably the result of these plants brought from France. Notwithstanding, the botanists Vivi Täckholm and Mohammed Drar, though, claimed in their 1950 bookFlora of Egypt that the once believed extinctCyperus papyrus was redis`covered in Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natrun. Also, in his 1980 bookLe Papyrus, Hassan Ragab, Director of the Papyrus Found of Cairo, closely analyzed the Wadi Natrun papyrus, which he believes to be the ancient institute, and the aforementioned as found in Nubia and the Sudan.

The speciesCyperus papyrus is a sub-species from the familyCyperaceae, or sedges, a large family of grasslike plants of probably four thousand species known in various parts of the world. Information technology is a tall flowering freshwater reed, which had at in one case grown in great affluence in the marshes along the Nile River. The plant had flourished well in these abundant waters, in the rich, wet and dirty areas, which provided its nourishment. Co-ordinate to W. T. Thiselton-Dyer in 1875:"The reason of its disappearance is probably to be sought, not in any modify of climate but in the physical weather condition of the river—perhaps the periodical ascent and fall of its water—not enabling it to agree its basis without homo intervention."⁵ As well, the Delta silted up and around the 12th century BC made it a salty swamp. Papyrus, a fresh water found, was doomed. Much later when paper was produced from cloth other than papyrus, the establish was no longer necessary to be cultivated and it died out.

Characteristics of Papyrus

TheCyperuspapyrus investigated by Hassan Ragab will be a expert instance to amend understand its splendid features. Hassan Ragab received the Offset Social club of the Democracy from President Anwar Sadat, in recognition of his important contributions to Arab republic of egypt and in particular for his work with Egyptian papyrus. A closer await at theCyperus papyrus will bring into focus a few of its main botanical characteristics. Although Hassan Ragab explains the constitute in great detail, only part of its very complicated structure volition be highlighted, excluding its intricate cell system.

Figure 5. The Umbel. From H. Ragab, Le Papyrus. Cairo 1980.

A mature, flowering umbel (Figure 5.) is composed of slim, twig-like, shoots merges from its stalk. The umbel, or whole cluster of spikelet-flowers on their corresponding, drooping stems, or numerous fine umbelrays, makes the umbel resemble a parasol, or a fan. Each plant has a tall, polish stalk, which supports the umbel. Stalks accomplish a height of four meters or more than. It is three cornered, robust, sleek, leafless, without knots, tapered in form and thick at the base, where it is surrounded by broad, spear-shaped leaves. The tough leaves are at the base of the stalk. These sheath-like scales differ amidst the many species ofCyperus. In the instance of theCyperus papyrus, the base leaves are covered by the h2o of the marsh and are maroon color. (In other species of theCyperus, the leaves develop to very bully heights to a higher place the water, but are light-green color.) They function in sunlight to assimilate chlorophyll and converts carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. The number of the maroon colored leaves vary from five to ix, with an boilerplate of seven. The longest of the leaves is nearest to the stem.

Where exercise umbels and stalks come from? They emerge from what is chosen the rhizome, a horizontal, root-like stalk that sends out shoots from its lower surface and leafy shoots from its upper surface. When we speak of rhizomes we remember of a subterranean root, the beginning growth of a constitute, usually in a horizontal position, often thick and containing the reserves for nourishment. Czech Egyptologist Jaroslav Cerny has described the rhizome as being "… completely submerged in water and mud, but several stems sprang from a single root, often reaching three-six metres in height and ending at the top with flowers."⁶

Effigy half-dozen. The Rhizome. From H. Ragab, Le Papyrus. Cairo 1980.

The illustration (Figure half-dozen.) shows the evolution of a young rhizome every bit information technology grows horizontally from an ancient decayed rhizome. The vertical shoots stop where supports of the tiny roots are developing into aeriated young stems.

The spike is a long flower cluster composed of branching, spike-like buds, which have sprung from their central stalk. The support for the spike grows in a variety of lengths and the buds vary in number on each stalk. Each spike has as many as twelve flowers, which are similar husks. They have no calyx nor corolla, i.e., outer base leaves nor inner petals or leaves.

Effigy 7. Evolution of the Umbel. From H. Ragab, Le Papyrus. Cairo 1980.

There are three stages of development of the umbel (Effigy seven.). The stem-structure opens out from the scale-similar, thick pointed leaves of the stem. Tiny, slim spokes, or leaves, emerge from their sheaths to form the fan-like umbel. A spike, or flower cluster, is centered on each of the joins on the slim, drooping stalks.

Papyrus Paper

Of course when we think of ancient Egypt we call back of papyrus paper. Egypt was its inventor. Actually nosotros probably retrieve of papyrus as newspaper when nosotros call up of information technology at all. Truthful, the principle importance of papyrus was as a surface for writing and illustrations. Information technology is nonetheless unknown, though, exactly when papyrus was created in Egypt every bit a writing cloth. Much nearly the history of Egypt and the ancient globe came down to the states as recorded on papyrus newspaper. We do know it was in employ by Dynasty I, circa 3100 BC, as attested by the hieroglyphic sign of a papyrus roll, which has also been considered the prototype of a volume. Such rolls of papyrus have been found at early sites. In the Dynasty I Tomb of Hemaka a roll of papyrus was discovered, but, alas, it was bare. Small fragments are known from Dynasty 5, 2477-2467 BC, at Rex Neferirkere's temple at Abusir near Giza, which are now housed in Cairo, Berlin, and Academy College, London. And then we know it was in production in the Early Dynastic and One-time Kingdom periods.

Figure 8. Papyrus of Kha. Copy by Prof. A. Basile

Precious, papyrus paper has been found in many locations, simply more often than not in tombs. Probably the earliest example was found during 1903-1920 excavations past the Italian Egyptologist Ernesto Schiaparelli at Deir el Medina at Thebes on a bury in the tomb of the principal-workman Kha and his wife Merit of the New Kingdom, Dynasty XVIII, 1386-1349 BC The 52 ½ feet long papyrus represents the and then-called "Book of the Expressionless," the original in the Egyptian Museum, Turin, Italy. In 1989, Professor Antonio Basile, Director, Museo Didattico del Libro Antico in Tivoli, Italy, was especially commissioned to create an exact replica of the get-go meter of the original papyrus for the Egyptian Gallery of the McClung Museum, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. A department of the papyrus depicts the deceased Kha and his wife before the dandy God of the Dead Osiris seated under his canopy in the Afterworld (Effigy 8).

Rolls of and documents on papyrus were kept in wooden chests, in jars, or sacred statuary. Chests are often represented standing on the ground in forepart of scribes. Five, almost complete papyrus rolls from a Dynasty Five tomb at Gebelein, were found in a unproblematic, rectangular, wooden box as were the papyri in a tomb behind the great Ramesseum, the Dynasty XIX temple of Ramesses III at Thebes. Although some boxes were labeled, they probably come from a kind of repository of royal personages. There is no prove regarding the organisation of a library in aboriginal Egypt before the great Museum-Library at Alexandra of the Ptolemaic Period, 332-30 BC There were regal administrative archives, where official daybooks, business messages and accounts were stored. Some were called "Place of Documents of Pharaoh" and there were also individual repositories.

Much information about the Greek civilization has come down to us through papyri. Egyptian papyrus became the basic writing cloth for the Greeks. In the Ptolemaic Period, when Greek pharaohs saturday on the throne of Egypt, high quality papyrus production and trade was under imperial buying, a monopoly in the control of Pharaoh. Information technology was also a cloth imported throughout the Virtually Eastward. Papyrus was mainly used by the literati, for legal papers, and affairs of state.

As C. H. Roberts noted:"Centuries before Alexander'southward conquest had made the Greeks the masters of the country, Arab republic of egypt had manufactured papyrus paper past a carefully guarded processes…. The Egyptians had fabricated of information technology the finest writing material known…indeed, without such a relatively cheap and user-friendly material literature and the sciences could scarcely have developed equally they did…."^vii Plainly Egypt was able to keep its procedure a deep cloak-and-dagger and maintain its monopoly.

Egypt went on to supply the whole Roman Empire. What a wonderful invention, so light, portable and easy to tape information via a reed pen, compared to the "more cumbersome or more expensive writing material, such equally rock and metallic plates, wooden and dirt tablets, or leather." ⁸ Merely, alas, paper made of parchment arrived in the 2nd Century AD and later linen came along from Red china by mode of Baghdad in the 8th Century Advert The fragile papyrus paper was no longer in need.

Luckily, though, many writings on papyrus by the ancient Egyptians did manage to survive, mainly in fragmented form. They are preserved in museums and institutions all over the world. The ancient Egyptians did not leave the method of making papyrus paper, simply only wall paintings of its being collected.

Although we take no tape of how they produced the paper, modern scientists have experimented with the constitute. The following steps are probably quite shut to the method used:

1. Soak freshly cut stalks in water;
2. Remove dark-green rind;
3. Split the soft pith in strips of finger width;
4. Arrange strips adjacent on a clammy board;
5. Arrange second layer of strips next atop the first strips in the opposite direction;
6. Press the 2 layers together (pound with a mallet, or stone for several hours) and they become naturally stuck together by the sticky substance of the pith;
7. Leave the resultant sheet to dry;
8. Polish the paper with a piece of ivory, shell, or smooth stone to flatten and smooth roughness,
9. The ends can be overlapped and hammered together to brand longer sheets.

Figure 9. Cast of the Narmer Palette. On loan to the McClung Museum from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Papyrus as a Symbol of Egypt

The plant may have go the symbol of Lower Egypt as early on as the fourth millennium BC. The plant is illustrated on one side of the famous Narmer palette of Dynasty I, circa 3100 BC, a bronze replica of which is on exhibit in the McClung Museum's Egyptian Gallery. Horus stands over his enemies, the marshland people of Lower Arab republic of egypt symbolized past papyrus (Figure nine.).

Another early example in relief are the papyrus stalks with circular umbels on the well known fragment of an ivory lodge, now in the Cairo Museum. It depicts King Zer, or Scorpion Male monarch of Dynasty I, seated on his throne, with the plant in the groundwork. Amid the many fine examples is the relief at the Temple of Abu Simbel, congenital in Dynasty XIX by Rameses II, of a blended emblem of the twined plant symbolizing Lower Egypt in the "Union" of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Papyrus Boats

Uses for the plant were countless. They bear witness the artistic, inventive and practical character of the ancient Egyptians in utilizing this about important natural resource that surrounded them. Even the Roman naturalist Pliny noted aspects of the plant's diversity and wrote, "…indeed they plait papyrus to make boats, and they weave sails and matting from the bark and also cloth, blankets and ropes." ⁹ For a culture that would not have existed were it not for the Nile River, boats were essential for survival. Egyptian men were the boat makers. They cut down and tied the papyrus stalks and carried them to a place where they could best construct them. There the mature papyrus stems were tightly bound together into an oblong slim shape. A low-cal portable boat was the result. (Figure ten.). These boats were used to collect papyrus as information technology could navigate marshes. Also papyrus fibres were woven together and occasionally made into sails, or twisted into ropes for the modest boats. Small skiffs were fabricated by fishermen every bit they served well for fishing and laying of traps or drag-nets. The seams of the larger wooden boats were caulked with papyrus and the rigging was made of papyrus fibres. Papyrus was also used for light cabins on boats.

Figure ten. A Boat Busy with Papyrus. From Thousand. Ebers, Egypt: Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque. London 1879.]

Figure 11. Making a Papyrus Gunkhole. From Thou. Wilkinson, The Manners and Community of the Aboriginal Egyptians. London 1878.

James Bruce commented about additions made to a papyrus boat and its restriction to local use: "The Egyptian ships, at that time (Sesostris I, Middle Kingdom, 1971-1928 BC), were all made of reed papyrus, covered with skins or leather, a structure which no people could venture to present to the sea."^xShips of wood are known every bit early as the Quondam Kingdom. Some were every bit long as 100 feet, probably fabricated of acacia, and some with papryus sails. Some had the stern and port carved in the shape of papyrus (Figure 11.).

Papyrus in the Household

Figure 12. Woven Box on Stand. From G. Wilkinson, The Manners and Customs of the Aboriginal Egyptians. London 1878.

Peasants too as the wealthy had many useful items made of papyrus in their dwellings. According to Pliny the stalks were used equally wood for fires but besides to make utensils and containers. There were boxes, chests, crates and baskets to store appurtenances such as wigs, toiletries, food, writing equipment (Figure 12).

There were bottle stoppers, balls and needle cases. Amongst other things papyrus rope was used in webbing for beds, woven floor mats and matting for walls. Papyrus defunction were fabricated equally doors that could be rolled upward and down. Trays, stools with reed webbing, tables laden with food, and sandals are some of the household objects that were made of papyrus. Besides, information technology was used for sealing jars. Amphora and other pottery vessels containing nutrient and diverse liquids had the mouths sealed past papyrus. Some seals were woven and sometimes the papyrus was just stuffed in the jar mouth every bit a safeguard. Strands of papyrus pith were used every bit ties around documents and letters.

Medical Papyrus

Then there were numerous medical uses as is documented in the Ebers Papyrus and in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a sample section of which is on showroom in the McClung Museum's Egyptian Gallery. Dried papyrus was used for expanding and drying fistulae and as an aid to open up an abscess for the application of medicine. Burnt papyrus ash was a caustic remedy. Dioscorides (AD 78) in the last century AD wrote that the ash cures oral cavity ulcers from spreading. The ash was as well used for diseases of the eye and if added to wine it induced sleep. The constitute itself with water was known to cure skin calluses.

Papyrus and Food

Papyrus as food was mentioned by Herodotus, who said the almanac constitute was nerveless and the lower role eaten. The starch filled rhizomes were consumed raw or roasted and tasted even meliorate after existence baked in a red hot oven. The Greek botanist Theophrastus (ca. 370-288 BC) claimed it was of greatest use as food. Egyptians chewed the papyrus raw, swallowed the juice and spit out the remains. The Roman historian Diodorus of Sicily wrote, circa sixty-30 BC, that children were served stews along with raw, roasted, boiled, or baked, stalks of the establish. Pliny the Elder tells united states that the root was a food for the peasant classes. He also noted that it was used every bit chewing mucilage both in the raw and boiled states.

Figure 13. Bastet Belongings a Papyrus Scepter. From G. Wilkinson, The Manners and Customs of the ancient Egypians. London 1878.

Papyrus as Amulets

Amulets were worn suspended from a cord around the cervix, as part of a broad collar, or sewn on mummy wrappings. One of the numerous faience amulets was the papyrus amulet, prized for its powers of regeneration, or rebirth as in renewed life. Another type of papyrus amulet was the hypocephalus, a circular piece of new papyrus inscribed with Affiliate 162 from the "Volume of the Dead." Symbolic of the sun, the protective disk was placed below the head of the mummy to insure the deceased would accept abundant warmth in the afterworld every bit on world. Goddesses are depicted grasping a papyrus scepter, a long, thin shaft surmounted by a triangular umbel (Figure 13.).

Papyrus for Floral Bouquets and Funeral Garlands

Images painted on tomb walls frequently depict papyrus umbels used in feasts and funeral rites. Guests hold them in their hands at feasts, or praying persons in religious ceremonies. Servants carry papyrus stalks equally common offerings to the gods. Papyrus was a precious gift on the altar and on the offering table in the temple. We also see the umbel as an ornament on walls, kisoks, tables, etc. In many tomb paintings there are depictions of "papyrus swathes" bundles of flowers and plant leafage tied around a cardinal bunch of papyrus stalks. The feathery umbels on long stalks were platonic for these composite floral decorations in temples and tombs. It might exist noted the stalks were used as a twine for attaching other flowers, the fibres used for stringing the flowers. The pith was shaped into bogus flowers.

Figure fourteen. Fowling Scene from the Tomb of Nakht. Re-create by Richard Greene of Knoxville.

Papyrus in Paintings and Reliefs

Papyrus is represented in many paintings and temple reliefs too as an important part of daily life. Amid the numerous examples is the papyrus prominently featured in the wall painting of a marsh scene of fowling in the Dynasty XVIII Tomb of Nahkt at Thebes, which was recreated for the Egyptian Gallery of the McClung Museum. (Effigy 14).

Also is the fragment in the Metropolitan Museum of Fine art of a garden scene from from the tomb of Ipuy at Thebes, and in the Cairo Museum the painted papyrus clusters decorating the palace floor at Amarna. Sandstone reliefs at the mortuary temple of Rameses 2 at Abu Simbel depict prisoners strung together with papyrus and on painted friezes on the belvedere of the thrones of pharaohs.

Papyrus and Architecture

The papyrus symbol is ofttimes an essential feature in the small (Effigy 15.) likewise equally the large.Towering papyrus form columns and pilasters in palaces and temples grow. Among many examples, the primeval is dated to the Dynasty III of the One-time Kingdom, in the handsome papyrus-form pilasters on the edifice façade of the pyramid complex of Male monarch Djoser at Saqqara. The stem on the pilaster is triangular in outline as is found on the plant. The style was replaced by the clustered type so common to later Egyptian temples. The Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak is an exceptional example (Figure xvi.),the famous, scale model of which can be seen in the McClung Museum's Egyptian Gallery.

Figure xv. Ointment box decorated wih papyrus. From G. Wilkinson, The Manners and Community of the aboriginal Egyptians. London 1878.

Figure 16. Model of the Hypostyle Hall. On loan to the McClung Museum from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Here the papyrus is total blown and in the circular. The column tapers and is encircled by pointed leaves at its base of operations and the capital in the form of an umbel. Also at Karnak is a towering pillar decorated in high relief with the symbolic papyrus stalks, erected by King Thutmosis Three in Dynasty Xviii. Individual dwellings were decorated with papyrus columns and pilasters likewise.

Papyrus Today

Today, what might be the ancient species is now found growing naturally in the Wadi Natron, an oasis area just due west of the Delta in Arab republic of egypt every bit was mentioned earlier. This survivor may be the ancient species, simply there are so many variants that bug have arisen in pinpointing the exact ancient establish species. Interestingly, a continuous growth of what some accept judged to be the ancient constitute is still profuse forth the White Nile in the southern Sudan, some one,500 miles south of the Egyptian border, alluded to by James Bruce. Various species of papyrus are found in other parts of the world, including the United States, and the continent of Africa such equally in large areas of west, east and central Africa and on the island of Madegasca. The papyrus groves of Sicily are thought derived from papyrus introduced from Egypt by the Arabs in the 10th century Advert

* This paper was given Sunday, June 30, 2002, in the McClung Museum at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in conjunction with Pharaoh's Harvest, a travelling exhibition virtually ancient and modern Egyptian plants, and besides to provide a better understanding of the nature of the papyrus as exhibited in the McClung Museum'south Egyptian Gallery.

Notes

1. Erman, Adolf,Life in Aboriginal Arab republic of egypt. London: Macmillan and Co., 1894, p. 447.
2. Herodotus, II, 92.
3. Bruce, p. fifty.
4. Tackholm and Drar, p. 134.
5. Tackholm and Drar, p. 140.
6. Cerny, p. 5.
7. Roberts, p. 251.
8. Cerny, p. 4.
9. Pliny, XIII, 71.
10. Bruce, vol. ane, p. 370.

Selected Bibliography

Basile, Corrado and Anna di Natale,Il museo del papiro di Siracusa ,Quaderni dell'associazione istituto internazionale del papiro-Siracusa 4. Siracuse: Assessorrato dei Beni Culturali due east Ambientali eastward della Pubblica Istruzione della Regione Siciliana, 1994.

Bierbrier, G. L. (ed),Papyprus: Structure and Usage.British Museum Occasional Paper lx. London: British Museum, 1986.

Breasted, James Henry,The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: published in facsimilie….University of Chicago Oriental Found Publications, v. three-4. Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1991 (from 1930original).

Cerny, Jaroslav,Paper & Books in Ancient Egypt . London : H.Yard. Lewis & Co, ca, 1947.

—————–, "The Contribution of the Report of Unofficial and Private Documents to the History of Pharaonic Egypt " inLe Fonti indirette della storia egiziana.Studi Semitici vii. Rome : Univeristy of Rome , 1963, pp.31-57.

Drenkhahn, Rosemarie, "Papyrus, -herstellung" inLexikon der Ägyptologie. Wiesbaden : Otto Harrassowitz, 1982, 667 670.

Lewis, Naphtali,Papyrus in Classical Artifact.Oxford : Clarendon Printing, 1974.

Lucas, Alfred and J. R. Harris,Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. London : Edward Arnold Ltd., 1962.

Parkinson, Richard and Stephen Quirke,Papyrus. London : British Museum Press, 1995.

Ragab, Hassan,Le Papyrus. Cairo : Ragab Papyrus Establish, 1980.

Roberts, C. H., "The Greek Papyri" in Southward. R. Chiliad. Glanville (ed.),The Legacy of Egypt .Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1963, pp. 249-282.

Tächholm, Vivi and Mohammed Drar,Flora of Egypt , Vol II.Message of the Facultyof Science, No. 28. Cairo : Fouad I University Press, 1959, pp. 99-163.

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Source: https://mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/2008/09/02/papyrus/

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